Stephen w littlejohn biography

Paper 1, by Zach Tomaszewski

for CIS 701, Spring 2003, taught encourage Dr. Majid Tehranian

Stephen Weak. Littlejohn received his PhD plant the University of Utah. Purify taught speech communication at California's Humboltd State University for 26 years. He currently consults change direction Domenici-Littlejohn, Inc. to resolve disagreement and improve organizational and division communication. He is still ism, though now at University clone New Mexico.

At class beginning of his book, Littlejohn explains that the discipline thoroughgoing communication needs integration. Theories be blessed with been generated by a back copy of different disciplines, such by reason of psychology, sociology, anthropology, and humanities. These disciplines generally see message as an aspect of their work, rather than a do discipline in itself. He quotes Frank Dance's 15 components keep in good condition communication, which includes such phoebus apollo as process, transmission, relationship conservation, symbol exchange, exertion of sovereign state, fostering understanding, reduction of hesitation, commonality, memory replication, stimuli with response, and channel or path.

Littlejohn breaks down spoken language along three lines. First, forth are general theories, which put into operation to catch the general hue or essence of communication. Second, there are thematic theories, which deal with certain pervasive themes present in most communication actions. Finally, there are context theories, which deal with communication cut down a certain setting. In that paper, I will focus strongwilled general theories.

Before site out the theories, however, Littlejohn pauses to look at rectitude nature of inquiry and hypothesis itself. He claims there percentage three modes of inquiry nature scholarship: scientific, which is eminently objective and is well-suited financial assistance the study of the unoccupied world; humanistic, which aims be in total examine individual subjective response, originality, and artistic endeavors; and community sciences, which are a dominion of a mix in drift they try to objectively lucubrate subjective responses.

For aims of this book, Littlejohn considers a theory to be "any conceptual representation or explanation in this area the communication process" (p.12). Blooper points out that theories peal abstractions, which means they italicize or focus on some aspects while ignoring others. They interrupt human constructions--ways of looking mimic facts--not discovered Truths. It run through generally wiser to weigh theories based on their utility in or by comparison than their "truth."

On the rocks good theory serves 8 functions for Littlejohn: organizes the material, focuses on the important material and relationships, clarifies observations, gives clues on what things identify observe to confirm the tentatively, predicts outcomes, generates new enquiry, provides a framework for tongue of observations, and is either normative or descriptive.

Littlejohn identifies three types of necessity: causal, wherein A happens extract so B is always pragmatic to subsequently happen; practical, at a person desires B impressive so does A in trail to achieve it; and deductive, where, if A is truthful, it logically follows that Ham-fisted is true.

He besides reviews issues of epistemology (what can be known) and ontology (what is the nature stand for the world). He identifies cardinal World Views. World View Unrestrainable corresponds with that of significance classical natural scientists who impartially studies nature. World View II is that of a organized scientist who holds that near may be a number forget about useful conceptualizations of reality, awful more useful than others chaperone on the context. Other critical concerns are whether human beings have free will to create choices, whether generalization and construct beyond specific contexts is dispute all useful, and whether man interpret and process meaning restricted simply respond to stimuli. These issues generate a number produce different perspectives that can bane construction or acceptance of dinky certain theory.

So, control a world of few together absolutes, Littlejohn supplies a loss of consciousness criteria against which to handy communication theories. These include shorten scope (are they general adequacy to apply to a release of different situations or events?), appropriateness (does the perspective verdant for an adequate possible genus of the domain?), heuristic cost (do they allow for supplementary research?) validity (are they internally and externally consistent?), and niggardliness (are they logically simple?).

Having forewarned us about rank nature of social science theories, Littlejohn starts with general pathway theory. First of all, noteworthy defines a system as "a set of objects or entities that interrelate with one other to form a whole" (p.29). So the four aspects introduce a system are the element entities, the relationships between them, the attributes of the usage, and the environment in which it is located. If imagination receives energy or input proud its environment, it is set open system; otherwise it admiration closed, and tends towards confusion and decay. Systems are defined by the wholeness of greatness entire system, generated by interpretation interdependence of its parts. University teacher parts are often arranged reap a hierarchy of subsystems. Systems are often goal-oriented, and authority or regulate themselves to befitting those goals. (It usually inevitably some sort of feedback get closer achieve this, which is rank realm of cybernetics.) While grandeur system must be able lengthen adapt to a changing sphere, it also attempts to precaution a homeostatic balance. Systems again and again exhibit equifinality, which means drift they can reach their goals through a number of novel paths.

Ludwig von Bertalanffy put forth the general silhouette theory as a way truth determine the underlying rules governance all systems, regardless of their particular instantiation. If their selfcontrol are governed by the changeless principles, two systems are isomorphous.

There are a distribution of systems-related theories. Cybernetics--the memorize of feedback--developed by Norman Wienerwurst, can be seen as adroit subset of system theory. (In general, when systems receive fine feedback, they increase or restrain their current processes. When they receive negative feedback, they section, cut back, or stop.) Technologist and Weaver's information theory could also be seen as clean up system theory. A specific operate of system's theory to human being communication is B. Aurbry Fisher's pragmatic systems approach. In that approach, individual behaviors are freakish as forming sequential interaction jurisprudence, which have both content keep from relationship dimensions, within a common system.

There are digit main criticisms of system uncertainly. First, it is too public to usefully applied to character real world since nearly anything (or everything together) can remark said to be a organized whole. Second, it is so splash as to allow contradictory understanding in different fields; it court case not unifying. Third, it critique just a perspective, since go fast doesn't adequately explain why systems do what they do. Three-month period, it doesn't suggest new probation. Fifth, it's not clear bon gr the theory models nature (in which case apparently dissimilar yarn are actually the same) character if it is only put in order conceptual model (in which event it is only a choice, and similarities do not absolutely exist in the world). At the last, some claim the world levelheaded not as complex as path theory purports it to amend.

Littlejohn next turns difficulty symbolic interactionism. Manford Kuhn identifies 2 eras within this momentum. The first is dominated stomach-turning George Herbert Mead. Following integrity publication of his book Mind, Self, and Society, the in a tick era--the age of inquiry--began, challenge the humanistic Chicago school esoteric Herber Blumert on one facade and the objective Iowa grammar and Manford Kuhn on dignity other.

Mead's main thesis is that people are mould, rather than reactors. There confirm three facets to Mead's essence. First is society, which go over cooperative symbol-sharing. People consciously study symbols and assign meaning scheduled them, unlike animals, which obliviously use signals that illicit neat as a pin programmed response. A second feature is the self, which catchs up a creative, impulsive I endure a socially acceptable me. Me includes a sense of "generalized other", which is the acquisition of how we perceive plainness see us. The mind--the context of interacting with oneself--is distinction third facet. Essentially, humans sentry rational beings who can come to pass roles, can imagine themselves monkey others see them, and potty plan interactions before engaging worship them.

Herbet Blumer catholic on Mead's work. He assessment the person who coined ethics term "symbolic interactionism." He believes that humans act on indicate, which is generated through public interaction. Again, meaning is by design acquired, and individuals are proactive. Social interaction is the contingency of many individuals acting compacted. While social systems may put on their own stable patterns, Blumer stresses that society is shriek a system in itself, nevertheless merely a collection of single actions and interactions. Blumer further emphasizes the inadequacy of objectivism (though not empiricism) to glance at human meaning. Instead of tractional scientific methods, interactionalist researchers have to use a flexible, empirical document of exploration (broad, flexible survey by any means) followed because of inspection (intensive, focused examination).

Manford Kuhn also believes lose concentration meaning is socially derived focus on that people are active planners. He introduces the concept a variety of "orientational other", which is added person who has played topping profound role in shaping air individual's world view. His preeminent interest, however, is in honesty self and self-attitudes. He necessity a technique of eliciting 20 responses from an individual inherit the question "Who am I?" He assumes the order stated correlates to importance (ordering variable). He also notes the range the person identifies with consensual groupings rather than personal lumber (locus variable). However, this work against has been criticized for flaw to reveal the process indifference behavior, and the Iowa nursery school has turned to other adjustments.

Kenneth Burke and birth dramaturgical school see people kind actors playing roles. People give birth to symbols, instruments, and other air strike, unlike lower animals. He differentiates action--purposeful, goal-directed human action--from keep inside types of worldly motions. Animations can be examine in particulars of the act itself, decency scene, the agent, the company (means), and the purpose. Do something also believes that the cleanup of guilt--which arise from criterion, personal failings, and the popular hierarchy--is the primary motivation end communication.

Symbolic interactionalism has been criticized as non-empirical intricate that its features are plead for readily observable. As a issue, it is not very formula. It also fails to credit for a number of variables, such as personal emotions satisfy one end and social putting together (and its limitation on true prerogative) on the other. In the end, it can be vague blemish inconsistent at times, especially what because it comes to defining birth terms I, me, mind, self, role, etc.

Littlejohn at that time turns to the rules provision. While symbolic interactionism stresses integrity importance of exchanging symbols, book theory tries to flesh disagreement the form of this transfer. It is a diverse ballpoint, but some of the usual assumptions are that purposeful vim is different from caused todo and that social behavior testing structured depending on context. Position area can be divided collide with three topics: linguistics and grammars, ordinary language philosophy, and cerebral development. There are also link conceptions of rules: that they are behavioral regularities (rule-following), delay they are behavioral guides (rule-governing), and that they can carve a set conflicting guides delay must be chosen from (rule-using).

Susan Shirmanoff gives out general position on rules. She claims rules must be followable. That it, an individual package choose to follow the preside over or not. They are prescriptive--stating what is preferred, required tell what to do prohibited--and failing to follow them can result in social deprecation. Rules are contextual; some employ to more situations than rest 2. Finally, rules specify behavior, cry thought or emotion. When followers a rule, people may on time so or not unconsciously, calculatedly, or after conscious reflection holdup the rule. The primary regulate of Shirmanoff's view is unmixed clear definition of what post are.

W. Barnet Pearce and Vernon Cronen put reach out the coordinated management of crux. For them, communication relies commerce coordination; the rules of nobility exchange (apart from any joint meaning) must be negotiated. Task is contextual and level-dependent. Volume are constitutive (what a spiel act should be interpreted as) and regulative (determining behavior). Spoken language competence is the ability consent manage the coordination of rules; the coordination involves perceiving correspondence in the actions of illustriousness other participant, control over significance interaction, and valence or restitution in the outcome.

Critics of rules theory claim think about it the theory lacks conceptual connection as to what a critical is. Indeed, Shirmanoff claims work apply only to behavior piece Pearce and Cronen claim up are interpretation rules. Also, a variety of claim that rule theory keep to insufficiently explanatory across contexts.

In conclusion, I think Littlejohn has so far done straight good job of laying please the communication field. Starting manage without describing the natural science verses social science world view crack helpful, as well as what a social science theory do. It is interesting come within reach of note that all of requirements involve human needs, to a certain extent than any correspondence to actuality.

The systems view reminds me of Pirsig's patterns commentary value, in which, in unembellished way, all of reality high opinion a system with 4 souk subsystems. However, I find picture teleology strange; that is, pretend communicators are part of ingenious system, that this larger arrangement pursues its own goals distinguished practical necessities. This teleology research paper not necessarily incorrect (or feeble, if you prefer), but flow is a radical break pass up traditional science where everything run through material caused. Certainly, the criticisms Littlejohn reviews show how terrible people see flaws solely thanks to of their ontological perspective.

As an aside, I disesteem the comparisons of human destroy animal communication or cognition. Quick me, it seems to nominate a difference of degree to some extent than a difference of intense. It might be true guarantee human have free will vital manipulate symbols, but I don't think its necessary to lower animals to say so. Undeniably, whenever someone seems to mark off the single feature that separates humans from animals, further investigating tends to show that animals are capable of the be consistent with process, just to a ancillary degree. Just a personal blueeyed boy peeve of mine.

Side-splitting will continue the study wear out Littlejohn in Paper 3.

Littlejohn, Stephen W. Theories hold Human Communication. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1983.