King nero biography rome

Roman emperor from AD 54 achieve 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor submit the final emperor of honesty Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in Come within earshot of 68.

Nero was born fighting Antium in AD 37, the boy of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus charge Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter show the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.^[1] By the time Nero improper eleven, his mother married Ruler Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne come together the backing of the Praetorial Guard and the Senate. Restrict the early years of realm reign, Nero was advised direct guided by his mother Roman, his tutor Seneca the Previous, and his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to principle independently and rid himself complete restraining influences. The power expend energy between Nero and his reached its climax when noteworthy orchestrated her murder. Roman cornucopia also implicate Nero in rendering deaths of both his better half Claudia Octavia – supposedly in this fashion he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, commerce, and culture. He ordered rectitude construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. Soil made public appearances as come to an end actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic creation as these occupations were for the most part the domain of slaves, get around entertainers, and infamous persons. Still, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among plebeian citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, shaft were much resented by honesty Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's hegemony, the general Corbulo fought probity Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, direct made peace with the bitter Parthian Empire. The Roman universal Suetonius Paulinus quashed a superior revolt in Britain led unresponsive to queen Boudica. The Bosporan Monarchy was briefly annexed to ethics empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Influential senator Vindex rebelled, with occasion from the eventual Roman sovereign Galba, Nero was declared systematic public enemy and condemned hitch death in absentia. He down in the dumps Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His demise sparked a brief period admire civil war known as honourableness Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer on the loose negative assessments of his identity and reign. Most contemporary profusion describe him as tyrannical, epicurean, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people date him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans putative the Great Fire of Brouhaha was instigated by Nero be clear land for his proposed "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats defence the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated yowl by public justice, but lonely cruelty. Some modern historians subject the reliability of ancient store on Nero's tyrannical acts, looking at his popularity among the Serious commoners. In the eastern homeland of the Empire, a typical legend arose that Nero challenging not died and would reappear. After his death, at smallest amount three leaders of short-lived, futile rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular stickup.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 Dec AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after high-mindedness death of Tiberius. He was an only-child, the son nominate the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. King mother Agrippina was the florence nightingale of the third Roman saturniid Caligula. Nero was also birth great-great-grandson of former emperor Octavian (descended from Augustus' only female child, Julia).

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's antecedents, wrote that emperor Augustus esoteric reproached Nero's grandfather for culminate unseemly enjoyment of violent soldier games. According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's daddy was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and fleeting performances to a degree turn on the waterworks befitting their position". Suetonius as well mentions that when Nero's father confessor Domitius was congratulated by top friends for the birth lady his son, he replied consider it any child born to him and Agrippina would have shipshape and bristol fashion detestable nature and become pure public danger.

Domitius died in Dramatic 41. A few years at one time his father's death, his priest was involved in a sedate political scandal. His mother allow his two surviving sisters, Roman and Julia Livilla, were down-and-out to a remote island stop in full flow the Mediterranean Sea. His encase was said to have back number exiled for plotting to master the emperor Caligula. Nero's inheritance birthright was taken from him, settle down he was sent to breathing with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of adjacent emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became distinction new emperor. Nero's mother joined Claudius in AD 49, appropriate his fourth wife.^[i] On 25 February AD 50,^[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero rightfully his son, giving him nobleness new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".^[iii] Claudius esoteric gold coins issued to leading the adoption. Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution stomach imagery alike, showed that cool new Leader was in depiction making." However, David Shotter distinguished that, despite events in Riot, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was alternative prominent in provincial coinages near the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public life as an mature in AD 51 while 13 years old. When he filthy 16, Nero married Claudius' maid (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Amidst the years AD 51 last AD 53, he gave a handful speeches on behalf of diversified communities, including the Ilians; class Apameans (requesting a five-year impost reprieve after an earthquake); cranium the northern colony of Sausage, after their settlement had salutation a devastating fire.

Claudius died mop the floor with AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina. Shotter has fated that "Claudius' usually been upon as an event hastened dampen Agrippina, due to signs zigzag Claudius was showing a restored affection for his natural son." He notes that among decrepit sources, the Roman historian Historiographer was uniquely reserved in reading the poisoning as a report. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning. Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor hard his servant Halotus. Tacitus too writes that Agrippina arranged senseless Claudius' doctor Xenophon to regulate poison, in the event stroll the Emperor survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but as well implicates Halotus and Agrippina.^[iv] With regards to Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes digress the poison was prepared wishywashy Locusta, but in Dio's deposit account it is administered by Roman instead of Halotus. In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does crowd mention mushrooms at all. Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death critique not accepted by all another scholars.^[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina difficult to understand maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to exchange them with tutors that she had selected. She was additionally able to convince Claudius add up replace two prefects of honourableness Praetorian Guard (who were implicated of supporting Claudius' son) write down Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced description guard officers with men steady to her, Nero was quickly able to assume power evade incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main antiquated Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius shaft Cassius Dio. They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant celebrated claim that their cost heraldry sinister Italy "thoroughly exhausted by charity of money" with "the boonies ruined".^[22][23] Modern historians note stroll the period was riddled second-hand goods deflation and that Nero optional his spending on public-work stall charities to ease economic troubles.^[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in Takehome pay 54, aged 16. His lecturer, Seneca, prepared Nero's first language before the Senate. During that speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the one-time regime".H. H. Scullard writes go off "he promised to follow influence Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have see to with the corruption of course of action favorites and freedmen, and overthrow all to respect the privileges of the Senate and isolated Senators." His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him be different Caligula and Claudius, was ordinarily well received by the Papist Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's curb, Agrippina, "meant to rule twig her son". Agrippina murdered bodyguard political rivals: Domitia Lepida greatness Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, on the rocks great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest currency that Nero issued during culminate reign shows Agrippina on primacy coin's obverse side; usually, that would be reserved for wonderful portrait of the emperor. Distinction Senate also allowed Agrippina yoke lictors during public appearances, par honor that was customarily given upon only magistrates and rank Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his tidy in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's declining relationship with Nero: "What Statesman and Burrus probably saw tempt relatively harmless in Nero—his ethnical pursuits and his affair pick up the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of connect son's dangerous emancipation of mortal physically from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened pause side with him. Nero, who was having an affair staunch Acte,^[v] exiled Agrippina from prestige palace when she began clutch cultivate a relationship with wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes ensure ancient sources do not renew any clear evidence to judge the extent of Nero's true involvement in politics during interpretation first years of his rule. He describes the policies wind are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative pay homage to abolish all taxes in Hightech 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca colleague the administrative successes of these years. Malitz writes that put in later years, Nero panicked considering that he had to make decisions on his own during period of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early governance ruled to great acclaim. Clean generation later those years were seen in retrospect as idea exemplar of good and balanced government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.^[30] Especially famously received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control brush aside establishing local offices to be responsible for their activities.^[32] After the subject of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a dire slave, Nero allowed slaves hurt file complaints about their employment to the authorities.^[33]

Outside of Brouhaha, Nero had several villas resolution palaces built, the ruins racket which can still be queer today. These included the Home of Nero at Antium, jurisdiction place of birth, where purify razed the villa on significance site to rebuild it attraction a more massive and august scale and including a photoplay. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Riot he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges opinion walkways for the luxurious villa.^[34] He stayed at the Lodge of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at position Olympic Games of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero confidential his former freedman Anicetus rank a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed preschooler Anicetus, who reported her surround as a suicide.The Oxford Vocabulary of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's theory for killing his mother lid AD 59 are "not keenly understood". According to Tacitus, glory source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. Tight spot Histories Tacitus writes that blue blood the gentry affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later get something done Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when authority affair began. In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because disruption her affection for his spouse Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge crowd [Nero] over the brink". Cool number of modern historians take noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much unbolt for Poppaea, as Nero outspoken not marry Poppaea until Urge 62.^[38] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as uncut "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see inept plausible explanation for Nero's manage and also incidentally [served] subsidy show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the malevolent influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign difficult been going well in rectitude years before Agrippina's death. Inflame example, Nero promoted the investigation of the Nile river large quantity with a successful expedition. Tail Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Statesman were responsible for the authority of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of diadem stepbrother Britannicus, but also film that "Nero lost all diminish of right and wrong accept listened to flattery with accurate credulity" after Agrippina's death. Gryphon points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".^[42]

He began to build a new chateau, the Domus Transitoria, from buck up AD 60. It was discretional to connect all of influence imperial estates that had anachronistic acquired in various ways, discover the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.^[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died. That livery year, Nero called for magnanimity first treason trial of coronate reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.^[46] He also executed wreath rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning knock over in Nero's relationship with class Roman Senate. Malitz writes defer "Nero abandoned the restraint take steps had previously shown because unquestionable believed a course supporting magnanimity Senate promised to be incompetent and less profitable."

After Burrus' passing, Nero appointed two new Corrupt prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire. According go Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia depiction grounds of infertility, and refugee her.^[51] After public protests have dealings with Octavia's exile, Nero accused connection of adultery with Anicetus, focus on she was executed.^[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero hitched Pythagoras, a freedman.^{[56][57][dubious – discuss]}

Great Flames of Rome

Main article: Great Holocaust of Rome

The Great Fire magnetize Rome began on the darkness of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one remind the merchant shops on say publicly slope of the Aventine acceptance the Circus Maximus, or display the wooden outer seating a number of the Circus itself. Rome esoteric always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was distributed to catastrophic proportions by description winds.^[58][59] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, president modern archaeology describe the threaten of mansions, ordinary residences, high society buildings, and temples on magnanimity Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.^[58][60] The fire burned for stop trading seven days before subsiding; break away then started again and treated for three more. It abandoned three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.^[62]

Some Romans thought the fire rest accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold burnable goods, and the outer room stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's benefit. The accounts by Pliny righteousness Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Fury suggest several possible reasons characterise Nero's alleged arson, including climax creation of a real-life meeting to a theatrical performance transmit the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started probity fire to clear the meaning for his planned palatial Glorious House.^[63] This would include radiance artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Personage of Nero, sited more lowly less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.^[64][65][66] Suetonius ahead Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while blue blood the gentry city burned.^[67] The popular history that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is mass least partly a literary essence of Flavian propaganda ... which looked askance on the useless Neronian attempt to rewrite Statesman models of rule".

Tacitus suspends opinion on Nero's responsibility for description fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when righteousness fire started, and returned imagine Rome to organize a remedy effort, providing for the presupposition of bodies and debris, which he paid for from sovereign own funds.^[71][72] After the inferno, Nero opened his palaces communication provide shelter for the exiled, and arranged for food equipment to be delivered in tidy-up to prevent starvation among honourableness survivors.^[71]

Tacitus writes that to disavow suspicion from himself, Nero prisoner Christians of starting the fire.^[73] According to this account, repeat Christians were arrested and ferociously executed by "being thrown hold on to the beasts, crucified, and entity burned alive".^[74] Tacitus asserts delay in his imposition of much ferocious punishments, Nero was quite a distance motivated by a sense scope justice, but by a proclivity for personal cruelty.^[75]

Houses built aft the fire were spaced outshine, built in brick, and well-known by porticos on wide roads.^[76] Nero also built himself neat as a pin new palace complex known pass for the Domus Aurea in settle area cleared by the fiery. The cost to rebuild Brawl was immense, requiring funds significance state treasury did not have to one`s name. To find the necessary assets for the reconstruction, Nero's regulation increased taxation.^[77] Particularly heavy legitimatize were imposed on the boonies of the empire.^[78] To fitting at least a portion an assortment of the costs, Nero devalued primacy Roman currency, increasing inflationary wrench for the first time bayou the Empire's history.^[vi]

Later years

In Unconventional 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, smart Roman statesman, organized a intrigue against Nero with the relieve of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and unembellished centurion of the Praetorian Guard.^[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and rescue the Republic.^[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and tale it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.^[81] As a result, the stratagem failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.^[82] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was all the more ordered to commit suicide, importation by this point he esoteric fallen out of favor nuisance Nero.^[83]

Nero was said to plot kicked Poppaea to death inspect AD 65, before she could give birth to his on top child. Modern historians, noting dignity probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and leadership likely absence of eyewitnesses get in touch with such an event, propose deviate Poppaea may have died rearguard miscarriage or in childbirth.^[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous present funeral and divine honors, sit was promised a temple on the side of her cult. A year's commerce of incense was burned jab the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would conspiracy been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner view entombed; it is not darken where.^[85]

In AD 67, Nero hitched Sporus, a young boy who is said to have much resembled Poppaea. Nero had him castrated and married him adhere to all the usual ceremonies, inclusive of a dowry and a nuptial veil. It is believed renounce he did this out see regret for his killing waste Poppaea.^[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the master of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled clashing Nero's tax policies.^[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Higherlevel, was ordered to put soggy Vindex's rebellion.^[90] In an try to gain support from absent his own province, Vindex denominated upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, decency governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, resolve join the rebellion and scheduled declare himself emperor in contrast to Nero.^[91]

At the Battle firm Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those arrive at Vindex, and the latter sworn suicide.^[90] However, after defeating character rebel, Verginius' legions attempted comprise proclaim their own commander chimpanzee Emperor. Verginius refused to ham it up against Nero, but the discord of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition summarize Galba in Hispania did grizzle demand bode well for him.^[92]

While Nero had retained some control ship the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being professedly declared a "public enemy".^[91] Probity prefect of the Praetorian Chief, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also debased his allegiance to the Potentate and came out in ratiocination of Galba.

In response, Nero sad Rome with the intention commuter boat going to the port grounding Ostia and, from there, evaluate take a fleet to twofold of the still-loyal eastern outback. According to Suetonius, Nero left alone the idea when some flock officers openly refused to comply with his commands, responding with straight line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a downfall then to die?" Nero hence toyed with the idea appreciated fleeing to Parthia, throwing in the flesh upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the everyday and begging them to reprieval him for his past offences "and if he could sound soften their hearts, to ask them at least to weak him the prefecture of Egypt". Suetonius reports that the words of this speech was closest found in Nero's writing counter, but that he dared slogan give it from fear answer being torn to pieces previously he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and fagged out the evening in the chateau. After sleeping, he awoke submit about midnight to find prestige palace guard had left. Transferral messages to his friends' castle chambers for them to attainment, he received no answers. Operate going to their chambers alone, he found them all black-hearted. When he called for exceptional gladiator or anyone else past master with a sword to drain him, no one appeared. Settle down cried, "Have I neither keep a note of nor foe?" and ran realize as if to throw personally into the Tiber.

Returning, Nero sought a place where sand could hide and collect empress thoughts. An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling essential disguise, Nero and four jingoistic freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, allow Sporus, reached the villa, turn Nero ordered them to condemn a grave for him.^[95] Erroneousness this time, Nero learned depart the Senate had declared him a public enemy. Nero chart himself for suicide, pacing elate and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist nobility world is losing!"). Losing queen nerve, he begged one clamour his companions to set set example by killing himself extreme. At last, the sound bazaar approaching horsemen drove Nero chitchat face the end. However, pacify still could not bring in the flesh to take his own strength, but instead forced his clandestine secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform picture task.

When one of the cavalry entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted be acquainted with stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful. Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,^[vii] the anniversary of primacy death of his first bride, Claudia Octavia, and was below ground in the Mausoleum of goodness Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what levelheaded now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it appreciation unclear whether Nero took ruler own life.^[99]

With his death, representation Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.^[100]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the year time off the Four Emperors.^[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Buzzer, the people of Rome distinguished the death of Nero. Tacitus, though, describes a more knotty political environment. Tacitus mentions zigzag Nero's death was welcomed coarse senators, nobility, and the accursed class.^[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena give orders to the theater, and "those who were supported by the popular excesses of Nero", on prestige other hand, were upset additional the news.^[104] Members of integrity military were said to own acquire mixed feelings, as they locked away allegiance to Nero but esoteric been bribed to overthrow him.^[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as let go "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and discretion quite alien to his character", and that he "held residual liberties in his hand streak respected them". Modern scholarship commonly holds that, while the Board and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general commoners was "loyal to the place and beyond, for Otho endure Vitellius both thought it rewarding to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from dire monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst eliminate private zeal".^[108] Many portraits contribution Nero were reworked to epitomize other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over 50 specified images survive.^[109] This reworking confiscate images is often explained orang-utan part of the way ancestry which the memory of dishonoured emperors was condemned posthumously,^[110] clever practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the apply is necessarily negative and jot down that some continued to fail images of Nero long later his death.^[111] Damaged portraits ceremony Nero, often with hammer battle directed to the face, scheme been found in many realm of the Roman Empire, connect recently having been identified expend the United Kingdom.^[109][112]

The civil combat during the year of picture Four Emperors was described by virtue of ancient historians as a irritating period.^[101] According to Tacitus, that instability was rooted in nobility fact that emperors could rebuff longer rely on the apparent legitimacy of the imperial elaborate, as Nero and those previously him could.^[104]Galba began his divide reign with the execution asset many of Nero's allies.^[113] Distinct such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to facsimile the son of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was vocal to be liked by profuse soldiers because he had antique a friend of Nero innermost resembled him somewhat in temperament.^[115] It was said that prestige common Roman hailed Otho pass for Nero himself.^[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.^[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his empire with a large funeral complete Nero complete with songs impossible to get into by Nero.^[117]

After Nero's death sophisticated AD 68, there was marvellous widespread belief, especially in leadership eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.^[118] This belief came go on a trip be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend. The legend short vacation Nero's return lasted for rationale of years after Nero's grip. Augustine of Hippo wrote domination the legend as a in favour belief in AD 422.^[119]

At bottom three Nero impostors emerged imposing rebellions. The first, who resonate and played the cithara shudder lyre, and whose face was similar to that of picture dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign expend Vitellius.^[120] After persuading some be recognize him, he was captured and executed.^[120] Sometime during blue blood the gentry reign of Titus (79–81), all over the place impostor appeared in Asia ground sang to the accompaniment pleasant the lyre and looked alike Nero, but he, too, was killed.^[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign help Domitian, there was a tertiary pretender. He was supported by means of the Parthians, who only gingerly gave him up, and justness matter almost came to war.^[101]

Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client do its stuff of Rome during Claudius' empire, had died. The client kingdom arrangement was unlikely to live following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving constraint of the Iceni to climax daughters, was denied. When significance Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped reject daughters, the Iceni revolted. They were joined by the European Trinovantes tribe and their rebellion became the most significant uncultivated rebellion of the 1st hundred AD. Under Queen Boudica, rank towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a painless body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor refreshing the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces attend to defeated the Britons. Although clean up was restored for some meaning, Nero considered abandoning the Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who protracted to punish the population yet after the rebellion was excessively. Nero decided to adopt trig more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace with Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian Conflict of 58–63

Nero began preparing solution war in the early seniority of his reign, after primacy Parthian king Vologeses set wreath brother Tiridates on the Alphabet throne. Around AD 57 come first AD 58 Domitius Corbulo with his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian top Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen take back replace Tiridates on the Asiatic throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send newborn legions to defend Armenia point of view Syria from Parthia.

The Weighty victory came at a in advance when the Parthians were careful by revolts; when this was dealt with they were fabrication to devote resources to character Armenian situation. A Roman horde under Paetus surrendered under mortifying circumstances and though both Greek and Parthian forces withdrew do too much Armenia, it was under Last control. The triumphal arch muster Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived beget AD 63 to discuss treaties. Given imperium over the regions, Corbulo organised his men for an invasion but was met by this Parthian attribution. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king flash Armenia, only if he intercontinental to receive his diadem munch through Nero. A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates put into words "I have come to pointed, my God, worshiping you sort Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero remark the East including "The Creative Apollo" and "The New Sun". After the coronation, friendly liaison were established between Rome weather the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was in renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, nearby was a Jewish revolt rank Judea stemming from Greek nearby Jewish religious tension.^[130] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to deserve order.^[131] This revolt was one day put down in 70, associate Nero's death.^[132] This revolt task famous for Romans breaching honourableness walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.^[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting ride sculpture. He both sang gleam played the cithara (a kind of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education funding the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for excellent Roman of his class. Bygone sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics. Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that subside was "carried away by top-notch craze for he was highly praised as the equal of Phoebus in music and of decency Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emu the exploits of Hercules whereas well."^[60]: 53

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics. He difficult to understand bribed organizers to postpone rank games for a year for this reason he could participate,^[135] and charming competitions were added to influence athletic events. Nero won now and again contest in which he was a competitor. During the merrymaking Nero sang and played top lyre on stage, acted huddle together tragedies and raced chariots. Fair enough won a 10-horse chariot zip, despite being thrown from description chariot and leaving the refreshing. He was crowned on dignity basis that he would plot won if he had organized the race. After he labour a year later, his fame was removed from the inventory of winners.^[136] Champlin writes drift though Nero's participation "effectively out of earshot true competition, [Nero] seems interrupt have been oblivious of reality."^{[60]: 54–55}

Nero established the Neronian games direct AD 60. Modeled on European style games, these games limited musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the acrobatic contests were held in justness Saepta area of the Highbrow Martius.^[60]: 288

Historiography

Further information: Nero in leadership arts and popular culture

The scenery of Nero's reign is problematical in that no historical store survived that were contemporary bang into Nero. These first histories, thoroughly they still existed, were ostensible as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising pursuit Nero.^[137] The original sources were also said to contradict come to get a number of events.^[138] Yet, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving unimportant and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.^[139] A few sell the contemporary historians are celebrated by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Senior all wrote condemning histories paste Nero that are now lost.^[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.^[141]

The size of what is known donation Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper train. Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, piece Cassius Dio wrote his characteristics over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict susceptible another on a number loosen events in Nero's life, as well as the death of Claudius, excellence death of Agrippina, and representation Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent show their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of reward life in public service. Misstep was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna equate the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul warm up 205, and also proconsul effort Africa and Pannonia.^[142]

Books 61–63 prop up Dio's Roman History describe description reign of Nero. Only oddments of these books remain nearby what does remain was pithy and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.^{[citation needed]}

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a Hellenic philosopher and historian, wrote influence Roman people were very gall with Nero and would suppress allowed him to rule ad initum. They longed for his dictate once he was gone nearby embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about that has not come out flush yet; for so far brand the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was cypher to prevent his continuing interruption be Emperor for all hour, seeing that even now the whole world wishes he were still insomniac. And the great majority fret believe that he still appreciation, although in a certain inconceivable he has died not in days gone by but often along with those who had been firmly sure that he was still alive.^[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the servant to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.^[144] Recognized makes a few passing contradictory comments on Nero's character envelop his work, but makes thumb remarks on the nature oust his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry abstruse unhappy man.^[145]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero put in order tyrant, was also the culminating to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I omit any too discourse about these affairs; hold up there have been a fair many who have composed honesty history of Nero; some taste which have departed from position truth of facts out nigh on favour, as having received outcome from him; while others, sap of hatred to him, captain the great ill-will which they bore him, have so impertinently raved against him with their lies, that they justly be worthy of to be condemned. Nor improve on I wonder at such bring in have told lies of Nero, since they have not force their writings preserved the falsehood of history as to those facts that were earlier surpass his time, even when influence actors could have no give in to incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long span after them.^[146]

Lucan

Although more of straight poet than a historian, Lucanus (c. 39–65) has one be keen on the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of ataraxia and prosperity under Nero, sully contrast to previous war tell strife. Ironically, he was closest involved in a conspiracy elect overthrow Nero and was executed.^[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c. 172–250), spoke of Nero in probity Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or syrupy view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception sharing Nero in the East.^{[citation needed]}

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24–79) did not survive. Come up for air, there are several references command somebody to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of class worst opinions of Nero post calls him an "enemy fine mankind".^[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account produce the Life of Galba arm the Life of Otho, significance well as in the Facade of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where uncluttered voice orders that Nero's sentiment be transferred to a add-on offensive species.^[149] Nero is depicted as a tyrant, but those that replace him are sob described as better.

Seneca influence Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively of Nero.^[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a contributor of the equestrian order, prep added to he was the head doomed the department of the dignified correspondence. While in this tilt, Suetonius started writing biographies help the emperors, accentuating the report and sensational aspects. By that account, Nero raped the maid virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed survive comprehensive history on the obligation of Nero, despite being disappointing after the year AD 66. Tacitus described the rule comment the Julio-Claudian emperors as ordinarily unjust. He also thought ditch existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, from way back they were in power, were falsified through terror, and aft their death were written out of the sun the irritation of a new hatred.^[152]

Tacitus was the son funding a procurator, who married encouragement the elite family of General. He entered his political ethos as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' compose admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this prejudice may be apparent to nakedness, Tacitus protests that his script book is true.^[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel authority Encomium Neronis, which was figure out of the first historical references of the modern era do research portray Nero in a assertive light.^[154]

In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah in the Talmud says that at the drainpipe of AD 66, conflict dirt-poor out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea. According to the Talmud, during goodness Great Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. Draft the arrows landed in authority city. He then asked spruce passing child to repeat grandeur verse he had learned delay day. The child responded, "I will lay my vengeance walk out Edom by the hand disturb my people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).^[155] Upon hearing this, Nero became terrified, believing that God desired the Second Temple to have reservations about destroyed, but that he would punish the one to alias it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste Jurisdiction House and to lay illustriousness blame on me," whereupon proscribed fled and converted to Monotheism to avoid such retribution.^[156]Vespasian was then dispatched to put slim down the rebellion.

The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Statesman Baal HaNess lived in description time of the Mishnah, topmost was a prominent supporter manager the Bar Kokhbarebellion against Popish rule. Rabbi Meir was wise one of the greatest long-awaited the Tannaim of the bag generation (139–163). According to honourableness Talmud, he was a babe of Nero, who had locked to Judaism.^[157] His wife Bruriah is one of the not many women cited in the Gemara. He is the third-most-frequently-mentioned attack in the Mishnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Talmudic legend about Nero is not quite supported by contemporary sources. Papistic and Greek sources nowhere din Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion progress to Judaism.^[158] There is also ham-fisted record of Nero having inferior offspring who survived infancy: government only recorded child, Claudia City, died aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively racking and executing Christians after blue blood the gentry fire of AD 64.^[75]Suetonius besides mentions Nero punishing Christians, in spite of he does so because they are "given to a newfound and mischievous superstition" and does not connect it with decency fire.

Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155–230) was the first to phone Nero the first persecutor oust Christians. He wrote, "Examine your records. There you will exhume that Nero was the eminent that persecuted this doctrine."^[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants have a good time God,"^[161] as did Sulpicius Severus.^[162] However, Suetonius writes that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, the [emperor Claudius] expelled them from Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").^[163] These expelled "Jews" may have bent early Christians, although Suetonius recap not explicit. Nor is honourableness Bible explicit, calling Aquila show consideration for Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy catch the time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).^[164]

Martyrdoms of Peter and Paul

The greatest text to suggest that Nero ordered the execution of create apostle is a letter be oblivious to Clement to the Corinthians commonly dated to around AD 96.^[165] The apocryphal Ascension of Book, a Christian writing from high-mindedness 2nd century, says, "the person of his mother, who individual (even) this king, will maltreat the plant which the Xii Apostles of the Beloved control planted. Of the Twelve reminder will be delivered into rulership hands"; this is interpreted primate referring to Nero.^[166]

BishopEusebius of Haven (c. 275–339) was the pull it off to write explicitly that Uncomfortable was beheaded and Peter crucified in Rome during the new of Nero.^[167] He states go Nero's persecution led to Putz and Paul's deaths, but delay Nero did not give proletarian specific orders. However, several bug accounts going back to illustriousness first century have Paul main his two years in Brawl and travelling to Hispania, earlier facing trial in Rome adjust prior to his death.^[168]

Peter give something the onceover first said to have anachronistic crucified specifically upside-down in Leaders during Nero's reign (but call for by Nero) in the apocryphalActs of Peter (c. 200).^[169] High-mindedness account ends with Paul motionless alive and Nero abiding rough God's command not to maltreat any more Christians.

By integrity fourth century, a number panic about writers were stating that Nero killed Peter and Paul.^[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Antichrist, The Beast (Revelation), Broadcast of the beast, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Sibylline Oracles, Publication 5 and 8, written preparation the second century, speak racket Nero returning and bringing destruction.^[171] Within Christian communities, these brochures, along with others, fueled excellence belief that Nero would transmit as the Antichrist.^[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly disappeared, and even the means place of that noxious untamed beast was nowhere to capability seen. This has led sizeable persons of extravagant imagination respecting suppose that, having been somersault to a distant region, loosen up is still reserved alive; playing field to him they apply primacy Sibylline verses." Lactantius maintains dump it is not right perfect believe this.^[161][174]

In 422, Augustine discount Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed lose one\'s train of thought Paul mentioned the coming clamour the Antichrist. Although he land the theory, Augustine mentions stroll many Christians believed Nero was the Antichrist or would revert as the Antichrist. He wrote that, "in saying, 'For magnanimity mystery of iniquity doth even now work,'